29 Apr 09 THE COLOUR OF THE IRIS AND THE IRIS-LAYERS
The colour of the iris determines the appearance of the eyes. We distinguish in general three natural basic colours: blue, grey, and brown.
Each of these colours has a physiological basis, and is conditional upon the degree of pigmentation of the iris.
The iris appears blue when its surface layers are colourless, and the deepest dark layer of the iris (retinal epithelial pigment) shows through. If the middle vascular layer of the iris—the
stroma—is coarse and compact, then the iris appears grey. However, the more dark coloured material is deposited in this stroma, the more the iris is darkened in its colouring, and the appearance tends towards brown. There are occasionally seen in a less pigmented iris, local accumulations of brown-to-black coloured substance which strikingly appear as dark-reddish flecks in the otherwise grey or blue iris. These are referred to scientifically as naevi irides
(iris-birthmark). We call them ‘toxin-flecks’.
In the case of albinos, the iris layers are completely transparent. There is a lack of all pigment. These eyes appear reddish, because of the visibility of the blood vessels in the deep layer of the iris—the retina.
In the new-born, the iris is at first dark-violet to blue-grey. Only in the course of development does there appear a lightening or darkening through alteration in the pigment content. With advancing age the stroma becomes more compact and coarser and thereby acquires a grey appearance.
The change of blue to brown iris is sometimes limited to an individual iris or even to a part, so that in the same person, one iris can be blue with the other brown, and also a smaller or larger brown sector may be seen in the blue iris. This is referred to as Heterochromia. Discolourations of the iris following organic diseases are of especial
significance in Iriscopy.
The structure of the iris is best viewed when the pupil is contracted, using a strong beam of light, either with natural vision, or better still with a loupe of 3 or 4 magnifications.
The iris is rich in changes, and is especially characterised by elevations and depressions of the anterior surface. This is referred to as the iris-relief.
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Tags: General Health
29 Apr 09 MENSTRUAL CYCLE-CREATURE COMFORTS: IN BED
At night, something as simple as an extra protective layer of bedding may help to make us feel more at ease. We differ from one another in our attitudes to all sorts of things and one of the most influential as far as period pain is concerned is our attitude to the blood we lose. Some, particularly women who were born in the West Indies, see the flow of blood as a sign of health, a mark that their bodies are functioning properly. Others accept it as a natural flow, but see blood as dirty, something that stains sheets and clothing, and must be cleaned away as soon as possible. Others consider that menstrual blood is not only dirty, but morally ‘unclean’, something that they should be ashamed of. What we feel about our own blood is a result of what the women we know and love have felt and probably still feel. Some of us change our minds and our attitudes because we come into contact with other people with different ideas. But whatever they are, our attitudes affect our behaviour.
If we feel that blood is dirty, we may unconsciously be trying not to stain clothes and sheets — especially sheets that don’t belong to us. When you have learnt how to relax, you may recognize that you are holding your pelvic floor in a very tense state when you have a period, particularly when you are in bed. It’s possible that you are ‘holding back’ your period because you don’t want to make a mess on the sheets. If you are, it could be very difficult for you to relax completely. If you think this might be your problem, one answer to it is to use a drawsheet — a piece of old sheeting or an ancient towel on top of the under sheet for a little extra protection. It’s a lot less bother to wash than a sheet too.
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Tags: Pain Relief
28 Apr 09 CHILDREN’S HEALTH: ASKING QUESTIONS, HOUSE CALLS
Asking questions
One of the things you’ll probably have checked out when you chose your doctor was his or her ability to speak language you understand. Doctors, like specialists in any field, are so familiar with their professional language that they sometimes forget how confusing it is to other people. So if your child’s doctor slips into medical jargon that you don’t understand, ask for a translation. Don’t feel uncomfortable about asking, either. You must know what the doctor’s instructions are before you can carry them out, and it’s part of the doctor’s responsibility to make sure you are fully informed about all matters that concern your child’s health.
Sometimes you may find that you understand what the doctor is saying – but you don’t agree with it. In this case don’t hesitate to ask why the doctor has reached a certain decision, or what the alternatives are. If you still don’t feel comfortable with the doctor’s advice, don’t argue. You may get the doctor to agree with your point of view, but this may not be in the child’s best interests. If you and the doctor disagree on a diagnosis or a course of treatment, ask for a second opinion. This means going to another doctor and asking his or her professional advice on the issue. Your doctor may welcome this suggestion – or even make the suggestion before you do. A doctor may be hesitant to assume full responsibility for diagnosing and treating a difficult or unusual case. In such a situation it is common to have two or more consultants working together to determine the best course of treatment.
When you ask for a second opinion, your doctor should be able to suggest names of possible consultants. If you trust the doctor, you’ll trust his or her choice of other professionals. If you don’t, you’ll be looking for another doctor anyway.
House calls
Many people who are now parents remember the days when doctors made house calls. And they wonder why doctors today don’t make house calls. Your modern physician will probably tell you that many wrong diagnoses resulted from examining sick children in their homes without adequate equipment. In the office, the doctor has a professionally set-up medical facility with all the equipment necessary for an accurate diagnosis. So whether or not a doctor makes house calls – and most don’t – should not affect your opinion of his or her competence. If you trust your doctor, and if you’re confident that he or she will always be available in an emergency, you’ve made a good choice.
A final word on the parent/physician partnership – and, again, it’s partly a matter of courtesy. If your physician is taking good care of your child, express your appreciation; doctors like to be thanked, just the same as anyone else. And if you’re not satisfied with the health care your child is receiving, the doctor should know that, too. A physician’s failure to please you may be due to many factors other than professional inadequacy, and if the doctor knows there’s a problem maybe he or she can correct it. If not, your best plan is to find another doctor.
Remember that although the doctor is your partner in caring for your child’s health, you’re still responsible for deciding just who this partner will be.
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Tags: General Health
28 Apr 09 WHY BABIES CRY
It’s normal for babies to cry. It is, after all, their only way of letting you know they need something. At first it may be difficult to figure out what the baby needs. In a newborn, though, there are only a few things a cry will signify: hunger, needing a nappy change, and needing to be held and comforted. As the baby grows up, he or she will find more reasons to complain: boredom, frustration, loneliness, fear, overstimulation, or maybe being too tired to go to sleep.
Sometimes you and your baby can get into a crying cycle. When the baby cries, you get anxious and nervous. The more the baby cries, the worse you feel, and nothing you do seems to help quiet the baby. The baby senses your feelings, your anxiety in turn makes the baby anxious and uncomfortable, and the child expresses these feelings by crying even more. If you find yourself getting into these cycles, talk about it with an experienced parent or your doctor. They may be able to suggest a solution.
Occasionally, a baby will cry because he or she is in pain. Check to see if you can figure out what is causing the pain. A sick baby may cry but will usually also have other symptoms of illness such as a fever, diarrhea, pulling on an ear, or a runny nose. Generally, a healthy baby will have a strong, loud cry. If your baby’s cry becomes weak, contact your doctor right away.
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Tags: General Health
28 Apr 09 DIABETES: HUMAN, BEEF AND PORK INSULINS
How are beef and pork insulins made?
Pancreases are collected at the abattoirs from beef or pork. They are quickly frozen and taken in refrigerated vans to the insulin extraction plant of the pharmaceutical company making the insulin. The pancreases are then mixed up with alcohol (spirit) and salt (brine) and acid. The insulin goes into solution in the acid-brine-alcohol mixture and therefore can be separated in solution from the remaining pancreatic pulp, which is washed free of the insulin.
After the insulin is in solution and separated from the rest of the pancreas, it is precipitated out from the solution and is purified and crystallized out as a powder. Bacteria which might cause an infection at the injection site and other impurities are also removed at this stage. The pure insulin is then dissolved in a fluid and bottled ready for use. Further processes may be carried out to combine this pure insulin with protein or zinc or modify it in some other way to produce the various other forms of insulin with a longer duration of action for the modern control of diabetes.
How is human insulin made?
Human insulin is now made by a process which involves genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is a term that describes our ability to take one gene (in this case the insulin gene) and insert it into the genetic structure of another living cell which then acquires the feature of the new gene (in this case the ability to produce insulin). To understand genetic engineering, we need to know about genes and cell DNA. The development of all living cells is governed by the inheritance of their characteristics from previous generations of cells. The inherited characteristics are passed on by genes contained in the cell and the genes are part of a complex substance called DNA. All cells contain DNA. Within the DNA substance of the human islet cells is the gene which produces human insulin.
Human islet cells are not easy to grow in the laboratory, and when they do grow, they do not multiply and produce large quantities of insulin. On the other hand, some cells such as yeast cells and bacterial cells have the ability to multiply very rapidly, so that if they could be given the ability to produce insulin, they could do so in large quantities.
It is now possible to synthesize the gene that is responsible for producing insulin in the human body. One way in which human insulin is produced by genetic engineering involves incorporating the synthesized human gene for insulin into ordinary bakers’ yeast cells. This is the starting point of the process for insulin manufacture, the steps of which are as follows:
1. The gene responsible for producing insulin is first synthesized chemically.
3. The insulin gene is now inserted (by chemical process) into the place that was cut into the DNA material from the yeast cell.
4. Now that the yeast DNA has acquired the human insulin gene, it is inserted back into the yeast cells.
5. The yeast cells are allowed to grow in glucose solutions in large tanks over a period of three weeks. As they multiply and grow, they release insulin into the tank.
6. The insulin is extracted from this solution and the yeast cells discarded.
7. This insulin is purified by a series of processes. No detectable impurities of any sort remain.
8. This insulin is in a pure crystalline form. It may be dissolved as the quick-acting unmodified insulin, or may be modified chemically to prolong its action as cloudy longer acting insulin.
The actual process is of course more complicated than this. For instance, living cells have to make insulin through first producing a larger molecule called pro-insulin which is later broken down to insulin itself. The process of purification also involves a number of steps to ensure the end product is entirely safe.
Other manufacturers use somewhat different processes and may use bacterial cells rather than yeast cells. The end product, of course, is the same as the insulin produced by the human pancreas.
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Tags: Diabetes
23 Apr 09 CANCER: COLORECTAL CONCERNS
No site is very pleasing for a tumor, but the notion of a cancer taking up residence in your bowel is extra queasy. Why, of all places, is it there?
For one thing, this is a place with a high cell turnover rate, so the likelihood of cancer developing is increased. Another reason is that the colon is full of bacteria that produce carcinogens. Cancers in either of those two bowel parts are usually lumped into the “colorectal” category. About 54,900 deaths from colorectal cancer were predicted for 1997, about 10 percent of all cancer deaths.
But actually, people are getting less colorectal cancer these days. The total incidences dropped from about 149,000 new cases in 1994 to an estimated 131,200 cases in 1997. This may be due to adopting healthier lifestyles, says Dr. Wurzelmann.
Early detection and removal of precancerous polyps are also likely playing a role. “I’m not seeing the big, bulky, extensive cancers that I used to 15 or 20 years ago,” and the reason is early detection, says Bruce Wolff, M.D., professor of surgery at the Mayo Clinic and Mayo Foundation in Rochester, Minnesota, and a member of the American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons.
If you want to increase your odds that there won’t be anything to detect-early or later-doctors recommend taking these steps.
Ask for aspirin. Popping a baby aspirin once a day seems to help with a lot of things, including colorectal cancer. According to Dr. Wurzelmann, aspirin increases the rate at which cancer cells kill themselves off. Some doctors are reasonably concerned about stomach bleeding or discomfort from daily aspirin doses. But, says Dr. Wurzelmann, “if you can tolerate aspirin, it may be a reasonable way to prevent cancer. Further research is needed, however, before final recommendations can be made.” Check with your doctor before you start popping aspirin.
Cool it with the booze. Heavy drinking has been connected with esophageal cancer, but it also increases the likelihood of the polyps that are precursors to colorectal cancer. “People who drink a lot can get more polyps,” Dr. Wurzelmann says. “Several different studies support that connection.”
Bulk up with fiber. The verdict is in on high-fiber diets, and it’s a good one for colorectal cancer prevention. Canadian researchers, looking at 13 studies involving more than 15,000 people, found that adding 13 grams of fiber a day to your diet could reduce your risk by 31 percent. The National Cancer Institute suggests that you increase your fiber intake to between 20 and 30 grams a day.
Embrace brassicas. For colorectal cancer, there is convincing proof that vegetables decrease risk. It’s a kid’s nightmare. Eat lots of different vegetables but be sure to include broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and cauliflower. All are members of the brassica vegetable family, and they could be a grown-up guy’s salvation. They contain chemicals that appear to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer. “Eat as much as you can enjoy,” suggests Dr. Wurzelmann.
Do calisthenics for your colon. One of the more proven ways to reduce colon cancer is to get moving. No, not that kind of moving. We’re talking physical activity here-exercise. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine recommend 30 minutes of moderate exercise daily. Even if that exercise is divided into 10-minute segments, it’s enough to reduce the risk of colon cancer.
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Tags: Cancer
23 Apr 09 FACTORS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO SNORING
We have been concerned thus far with a picture of the normal upper airway, discussing its susceptibility to collapse given the compliant nature of the pharynx and the destabilizing effect of sleep. In fact, most people’s airways remain open during sleep and they experience neither the audible evidence of partial collapse nor a disastrous total collapse. So what makes snorers different?
The shape of the upper airway
In many instances the cause of snoring is plainly visible on a simple examination of the throat. Looking through the mouth into the oropharynx, one is often confronted with a pendulous and swollen soft palate and uvula which quite plainly has the effect of narrowing the entrance to the upper airway. Inflammation or reddening of this tissue is further evidence of upper airway trauma caused by snoring. Some patients present with a good history of snoring but with no remarkable physical features to account for the symptoms, and it is these patients who impress on us the fact that snoring can be brought about by very subtle changes in the shape of the upper airway.
Using a technique known as acoustic reflection (in principle, not unlike a sonar) several studies have demonstrated that the cross sectional area of the pharynx in heavy snorers is less than that of non snorers. In other words snorers tend to have a narrower pharynx in the awake state even before other factors come into play such as the loss of muscle tone during sleep. Not surprisingly, the soft tissue around the narrowed airway vibrates under the added strain of each inspiratory manoeuvre. Careful analysis of the size and position of facial bones, particularly the jaw, has shown that heavy snorers often have slight changes in the alignment of these structures which again favours collapse of the upper airway.
Although most snorers will have a narrow pharynx or some degree of mal-alignment of the jaw there are sometimes more conspicuous findings which tip the scales dramatically in favour of the repetitive airway obstruction which is often associated with heavy snoring. Any condition, and there are many, which effectively restricts the flow of air through the upper airway by narrowing the pharynx will promote snoring.
Obesity
Obesity certainly contributes to the incidence and severity of snoring. The relationship between excessive weight and sleep disorders is under active investigation and there is evidence to suggest that fat deposits in the tissue surrounding the pharynx play a role. Weight loss, even for the mildly overweight, has been shown to be effective in reducing the severity of snoring.
Other impediments
There are several structural anomalies of the upper airway which can interfere with the normal flow of air such as enlarged adenoids and tonsils, a large tongue, malformations of the jaw or an abnormally long or fleshy soft palate. The list is incomplete but serves to show that some changes to the anatomy of this critical part of the airway will favour snoring.
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Tags: General Health
23 Apr 09 BREAST CANCER: INVESTIGATIONS AND DIAGNOSIS
Asking questions
Always ask questions if you are unsure about anything. Never feel embarrassed or foolish, and never go away not having understood something; it will only cause you to worry. Almost all your questions can be easily answered with simple explanations, but if answers are not known, your doctor should be able to discuss with you the reasons.
People tend to forget what they had wanted to ask until they are at home again. It may therefore be a good idea to write your questions down as you think of them, and be prepared with a list next time you talk to your doctor. Uncertainty and confusion cause anxiety which, in most cases, is unfounded, and any good doctor will be happy to answer all your questions, no matter how trivial you think they may seem.
Being told you have breast cancer
Do not be afraid to speak frankly to your doctor. Some doctors avoid mentioning the word ‘cancer’, and feel the need to shield patients from any unpleasant truths. Some will not tell you unless you ask, believing that you would ask if you wanted to know. Most breast care nurses have experience of women who, having been told their diagnosis by the specialist, express relief at discovering that they have a ‘tumour’, and not cancer. Although a tumour is strictly any abnormal swelling, some doctors use the word when they actually mean a malignant tumour -a cancer.
If you are anxious about a lump or do not understand what you are being told about it, it is best to be frank: ‘Is it cancer, doctor?’ should elicit a direct and truthful answer, although it is a question many people will find difficult to ask.
Women who have been told that they have breast cancer will need – and should expect – to talk to a breast care nurse. Coming to terms with this disease is easier if you are given accurate information by a sympathetic, informed professional.
Help and counseling for women with breast cancer and for their families are also available from a variety of organizations. The breast care nurse, your GP or consultant will be able to give you information about these services.
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Tags: Cancer
23 Apr 09 SOME HISTORICAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
It is all too easy in our cosy world to forget just how hostile life was as recently as a century ago and so to belittle what preventive medicine has achieved so far. A hundred years ago, only six babies out of ten survived to adulthood and the life expectancy of a British boy born between 1871 and 1880 was 41 years, and that of his sister 45 years. If they managed to survive the first year of life this improved to 48 and 50 years respectively. Today this has totally changed-mainly because of preventive rather than curative measures. Generally speaking we all accept that when we have a baby it will be born alive and will survive to see old age-but this is a very recent assumption in the history of the human race. Childbirth itself was extremely hazardous for both a mother and her child only a century ago and then the child had to survive all the childhood infections, in addition to smallpox and ÒÂ. Nutrition in Victorian England was so poor that children’s resistance was low and they were likely to pick up anything that was going. The majority of the population of Victorian England lived in urban slums, water was often unsafe and few houses had piped water at all. In the environment of cities diseases spread and took hold of whole communities, causing thousands of deaths in any one epidemic. Over the last hundred years, though, the death rates from ÒÂ, enteric fever and the main infectious diseases of childhood have been reduced by more than 99 per cent.
In western countries mortality in every age group up to the age of 35 is now one tenth or less of what it was a hundred years ago and among children aged 1-9 it is now one twentieth of what it was then. In fact mortality has fallen by 88 per cent.
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Tags: General Health
23 Apr 09 KEFIR BATH (FERMENTED MILK) FOR YOUR SKIN
It’s quite interesting to look back in history and to read that the beautiful queen of Egypt bathed in fermented milk and that her skin was so beautiful that we still talk about it. Milt baths are a great treat for thirsty pores. You will be saturated with a calcium covering which will give you firmer, beautiful and softer skin
The following recipes are a guide how to make your own bath care products with kefir.
Kefir relaxing and moisturising bath: 1 cup kefir, 2 tbsp. wheatgerm oil, 5 drops lavender essential oils. Mix all ingredients. Add to bath and relax for fifteen minutes.
Kefir revitalising bath: 1 cup kefir, 1 tbsp. Epsom salts, 2 tbsp. almond oil, 3 drops pine essence oil, 2 drops orange essential oil. Mix all ingredients and add to the bath. Relax for fifteen minutes.
Apricot & Kefir oil for the bath: 2 tbsp. melted butter, 2 tbsp. olive oil, 1 tsp. cider vinegar, 2 tbsp. witch hazel, juice of three apricots (use a blender), 100 g kefir, 2 beaten eggs, 300 ml milk. Mix the butter and the olive oil and allow to sit for one hour. Mix in cider vinegar, witch hazel, apricot juice and the kefir. Stir well. Add the eggs and half the milk and put the mixture into a blender. After it is thoroughly blended add the remaining milk. This mixture can be kept in the refrigerator in a sealed bottle. It is enough for six baths, use only a cupful to each bath.
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Tags: Skin Care
